Essentials of anthropometry : a handbook for explorers and museum collectors

SSENTTALES OF ANTHROPOMETRY

i

LOUIS @. Linas nee

FOR THE PEOPLE
FOR EDVCATION |

| FOR SCIENCE |

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF

NATURAL HISTORY

ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

A HANDBOOK FOR EXPLORERS
AND MUSEUM COLLECTORS

LOUIS R. SULLIVAN

Revised by
H. L.. SHAPIRO

Assistant Curator of Physical Anthropology

AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
New York, 1928

23-1123576 Sepf.g
Pooks
OF THE
ANTHROPOLOGICAL HANDBOOK FUND

ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

By Louis R. SuLLIVAN

ad a
et So See _ = i —_—

PREFACE

The Division of Anthropology of the American
Museum of Natural History has as its functions
and purposes the study of mankind and the dis-
persal of the knowledge thus gained in the form of
scientific publications and museum exhibits. For
these purposes it needs anthropometric data,
photographic records, plaster face masks, and
skeletal remains of all the races and types of
mankind and the many mixtures thereof. It will
welcome correspondence from anyone who may
have the opportunity and the inclination to assist
in obtaining such material. While the number
who will find themselves able to contribute an-
thropometric data may be limited, there are un-
doubtedly many who can contribute photographs,
plaster masks, or skeletal material.

The Division will gladly consider any oppor-
tunity to codperate with such other institutions as
may be temporarily interested in anthropological
problems but which have no specially trained staff
available.

Further explanations or instructions concerning
any of the subjects dealt with in this outline will be
furnished upon application.

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

Necessary Instruments

The Measuring Points, or Sank
The Essential Measurements .
Derived Measurements and Indices
Descriptive Observations.
Deformations

Assistance .

Classificatory Data .

Desirable Subjects

Photography

Skeletal Collections .

Statistics

Record Blanks and Publication

Suggested Anthropometric Record Blank

Bibliography

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
The Spreading Calipers . 17
The Sliding Calipers 18

The Color Top and Method of ees ihe
Color Disks 21
Landmarks on the Body. 24

The Landmarks and Length and Height Messure
ments : 26
Measuring Points and MEsonesnenin of Width . 27
Types of Hair Form 45
Types of Hair Form 46
A Hair Form Standard . ’ 47
Structure of the Epicanthic Ey ald 52
Eyes without an Epicanthic Fold 54

A Standard of the Degrees of Development of thi
Epicanthiec Fold 56

A Standard to aid in describing ihe Thickness s
the Lips ; 58

A Standard to aid in gine fe Dagese of De-
velopment of the Incisor Rim 59
Body Hair Development . 61

INTRODUCTION

There is practically no limit to the number of
measurements and observations which may be
taken on the living human body. A majority of
these measurements and observations are of
interest and importance, but it 1s a physical im-
possibility to employ all of them on any con-
siderable number of individuals. Experience has
shown that it is necessary and wise to limit the
number of measurements and observations and
to increase the size of the series studied. In
order that observers may proceed in a uni-
form manner several international and intrana-
tional congresses have agreed upon and published
lists of preferred measures with details as to
how they should be taken. The purpose of these
lists of agreements is to insure comparability of
the data the world over. Yet, these agreements
were made for physical anthropologists primarily
and schedule long detailed series of measure-
ments for all parts of the body. This is all well
enough for professional specialists, but, as a
matter of fact, trained physical anthropologists
have contributed only a small part of our anthro-
pometric data. So we must depend upon
ethnologists, archeologists, physicians, army and

11

12 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

naval officers, and travelers for anthropometric
data on little known and inaccessible peoples with
whom they come in contact. Many valuable data
have been contributed in this way, but most of
these men have carried this work as a side line.
Consequently, the number of measures was re-
duced according to the taste and convenience of
each observer. Some measured stature only,
some stature and two head diameters; in fact,
about ninety per cent of the studies end here. A
few more observers have taken face height or
width, the nasal diameters, or one or two other
measurements. There are times when it is only
necessary to make one measurement, but this is
when a particular and concrete problem is in mind.
Moreover, if one has a definite and specific problem
it is legitimate to select only such measures as
bear on or help solve that problem. Yet, unfor-
tunately, most of these observers had no specific
problem in mind, but gathered their data as
general contributions to our knowledge of the
races of mankind. While it is true that a knowl-
edge of the stature and cephalic index of all peoples
is a very desirable thing, this in itself does not go
far towards advancing our knowledge of race
relationships. In fact, the popularity of the
cephalic index has probably done much to retard

INTRODUCTION 13

our knowledge of race relationships because so
many have relied upon this measure alone. It
does not follow that this measure is useless or
worthless, far from it, for it is one of the most
valuable descriptive measures. Yet it is one
of many and by itself of little value except in
special studies of the cephalic index. Again,
what is true of the cephalic index is true of any
other one measure or observation, since the larger
and finer relationships of the various types of
mankind are problems which require a definite
number of measures and observations for their
solution and upon which all the data of physical
anthropology must be brought to bear. For
example, most of us desire such schemes of rela-
tionship as those devised by Deniker, Sergi,
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, and others. We wish to know
also just how many and what physical types in-
habit such areas as Polynesia, Micronesia, Mela-
nesia, and Malaysia, as well as the relationship of
the various physical types to each other and to.
other known types of mankind. Fortunately, a
minimum number of measures and observations
will give these larger relationships. Thus, for
Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, and Melanesia,
it appears that with seven measurements, the
resulting four indices, and nine descriptive ob-

14 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

servations, we can untangle the relationships of the
many physical types involved. While we speak
specifically of these four areas, it is probable that
the same seven measures, four indices, and nine
observations would give us a key to the relation-
ships of racial groups in any part of the world.

The absolute measurements recommended are:
stature, head length, head breadth, face breadth,
anatomical face height, nasal height, and nasal
width. From these measures we derive the
cephalic length-breadth index, the transverse
cephalo-facial index, the anatomical face index,
and the nasal index. These measures and indices
should be supplemented by descriptive observa-
tions on the color of the skin, color of the hair, form
of the hair, eye color, the epicanthie or Mongoloid
eyefold, thickness of the lips, form of the upper
front (incisor) teeth, the amount of beard develop-
ment, and the development of body hair.

The main reason for this choice of measures,
indices, and observations, is that the races differ
most markedly in these characters and that certain
of them in combination are characteristic of the
different races. Another reason is the simplicity
of the technique involved.

In addition we have included other measure-
ments on the head and body to serve as a basis for

INTRODUCTION 15

more detailed research. The body measurements
are recommended for the investigator interested in
the proportions of the trunk and the extremities,
and should serve as a minimum requirement for
growth and constitutional studies. For those deal-
ing with special problems along these lines, many
more measurements suited to their purposes will
be found in Martin’s Lehrbuch der Anthropologie.
The purpose of this outline is not merely to
urge uniformity of technique, but also uniformity
in the number and kind of measures and observa-
tions taken, to the end that we may attain the
maximum result with a minimum expenditure
of time, effort, and money. Further, we wish to
encourage the codperation of archzologists, eth-
nologists, physicians, and others who find them-
selves suitably situated to make such studies, and
while the physical anthropologist needs no such
guide, it is hoped that he too will codperate in these
minimum specifications. Naturally, there is no
objection to increasing the number of measures
and observations indefinitely, but all should
agree on a desirable minimum to be taken by all.
Since this outline is intended for those who
have not specialized in physical anthropology,
specific and detailed directions are given for taking
the measurements and observations. Wherever

16 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

possible, illustrations and pictorial standards have
been introduced to aid in the description of non-
measurable characteristics. While it is our belief
that after a careful study of this outline any in-
telligent and interested person could make very
creditable records, it is urged that those who con-
template such work will obtain instruction and
training from some anthropologist whenever this is
practical and possible. The Department of
Anthropology of the American Museum of Natural
History will gladly assist in the training and
instruction of such persons or aid in the analysis
and interpretation of such field records as may be
made.

NECESSARY INSTRUMENTS

1. Stature Rod. A metal anthropometer is
made by P. Hermann, Rickenbach and Son of
Zurich after the plan of Professor Rudolf Martin.
Several American instrument houses furnish wood-

Fig. 1. The Spreading Calipers as they are held when
being used.

en rods, jointed in two or three pieces. They
are inexpensive and graduated in both inches and
centimeters. Such rods may be obtained of
George Tiemann Company of New York City or

17

18 “" '§ ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY
the Narragansett Machine Company of Provi-
dence, Rhode Island.

2. Spreading Calipers. The spreading cali-
pers (T'asterzirkel) manufactured by P. Hermann,
Rickenbach and Son, of Zurich, are superior and

Fig. 2. The Sliding Calipers as they are held when

being used.

no more expensive than others. If these cannot
be procured, the French or American calipers used
by police in Bertillonage will serve. The nearest
large police station will furnish the address of

INSTRUMENTS 19

supply houses. Fig. 1 shows this instrument as
it is held when being used.

3. Sliding Compass. Again the sliding com-
pass (Gleitzirkel) made by P. Hermann, Ricken-
bach and Son, is the most desirable instrument
on the market. Most large instrument houses
offer suitable substitutes if the above are not
accessible. Accurate callibration is the main
feature to note in procuring instruments of this
sort. The sliding compass is shown in Fig. 2.

4. Head Spanner. A completely satisfactory
head spanner for measuring head height is not
available. The necessity of introducing blunt
points in the ear holes is extremely unpleasant
and may be a serious impediment in dealing with a
primitive or unsophisticated people. However,
there are several useful models which are service-
able after some practice.

Todd’s head spanner may be obtained from the
Anatomical Laboratory of Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, Ohio. It has a device for
determining the eye-ear plane. Hooton’s cephalo-
meter has the decided improvement of eliminating
the introduction of rods into the ears, but is
rather complicated, requiring familiarity and docile
subjects for its satisfactory use. It may be ob-
tained from the Peabody Museum of Harvard

20 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. There are
other methods of obtaining head height to be
discussed later.

5. Skin Color Standard. Von Luschan’s
porcelain scale of skin colors sold by P. Hermann,
Rickenbach and Son, of Zurich, is by far the most
convenient for use in the field. On the other hand,
the color top is highly recommended. The
standard color top (Fig. 3) manufactured by
Milton Bradley Co., Springfield, Massachusetts,
may be used successfully. The degree of pigmen-
tation is expressed in percentages of white, black,
yellow, and red (ox blood red). These tops are
inexpensive and enough of them should be taken to
insure a sufficient supply. When neither the scale
nor the top are obtainable use any standard color
chart, or devise one to meet the needs of a
particular area. Hrdlicka has published Broca’s
old scale on paper. It may be obtained from the
Government printing office at Washington, D. C4
Many of the color scales used by mammalogists,
ornithologists, and conchologists are adaptable to
use in anthropology. In general, almost any seale
is an improvement on attempting to estimate color
offhand. So, if necessary, make your own scale,

“Directions for Collecting Information and Specimens for Physical
Anthropology” by Ales Hrdlicka (Bulletin, United States National Mu-
seum, Part 4, No. 39).

‘SYSIC, LOJOD oy} suysn{pe
jo poyjoy pus doy s07oD ey, “ES “SY

MOV 18 SLIHM

22 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

It can later be standardized with the color top,
Von Luschan’s or Broca’s scales when publishing
the results.

Since the color top is a new device, brief direc-
tions for its use may be added. The disks fur-
nished with the top are standardized and it is
customary to use four of them, white (w), red (r),
yellow (y), black (b). The base of the top is
divided into twenty sectors from which as a seale
one can read in subdivisions of five, thus convert-
ing the scale into percentages. The method of
adjusting the disks is shown in Fig. 3.

THE MEASURING POINTS, OR
LANDMARKS

The measuring points described below are
illustrated in Figs. 4, 5, and 6.

Vertex: The highest point on the top of the
head in the median sagittal line.

Tragion (tr): The notch directly above the
tragus of the ear.

Acromion (a): The most lateral point on the
acromion process. This landmark may be found
with the greatest ease by following the spine of
the scapula to its outermost border.

Suprasternale (sst): This point is located in the
deepest part of the upper border of the sternum
or breast bone. Frequently the superior border
of the sternum is rounded, therefore care must be
exercised in determining the upper border.

Dactylion (da): The distal end or tip of the
middle finger with the hand held fully extended.

Iliocristale (ic): This is not a fixed point. It is
situated at the widest part on the iliac crest and
should be determined by palpating the iliac
crest until the most lateral extension is found.

Glabella (gl): The most anteriorly projecting

23

Fig. 4. Landmarks on the Body. tr=tragion; a=acro-
mion; sst=suprasternale; ic =iliocristale; da =dactylion;
ti =tibiale.

24

MEASURING POINTS 25

point on the frontal bone (forehead) in the median
sagittal line. Usually it is about on a line with the
tops of the eyebrows or very slightly below.

Opisthocranium (op): That point in the median
sagittal line of the occiput (back of the head)
which is most distant from the glabella. It is
found by measuring.

Euryon (eu): The most laterally projecting
point on the sides of the head above the supra-
mastoid and zygomatic crests. It is the point at
whic greatest width of head is measured. It is
very variable in location and determined solely
by measuring until the maximum width is found.
Obviously, the euryon is found on both sides of
the head.

Nasion (na): The nasion is the point in the
median sagittal line where the nasal bones join
the frontal bone. It is one of the most important
and at the same time most difficult points to locate
on the living. It is best found by running the
left thumb up the bridge of the nose with moderate
pressure until a distinct angulation is felt where it
joins the frontal bone. It is easy to find in people
with a high nasal bridge since the angle is mod-
erately abrupt; in races with a very low nasal
bridge it cannot be felt, but must be located from
our knowledge of anatomy. If possible see this

as

a)
=

Fig. 5. The Landmarks and Length and Height
Measurements. gl=glabella; op =opisthocranium; ft =
frontotemporale; na =nasion; sn =subnasale; gn =gnathi-
on; eu=euryon; zy =zygion; go=gonion. Note that the
euryon, zygion, and opisthocranium are not definite ana-
tomical points like the nasion and subnasale, but are
located wholly by measuring.

26

a . Head width

Fig. 6. Measuring Points and Measurements of
Width. gl=glabella; na=nasion; sn=subnasale; gn =
gnathion; eu=euryon; zy =zygion; ft= frontemporale;
go=gonion; al=alare. Note that the euryon, zygion,
and alare are not definite anatomical points like the na-
sion and subnasale: but are located wholly by measuring.
Note also that all the above measurements of width are

maximum measurements.
27

28 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

point on a skull before attempting any measuring.
It is usually on a line with the lowest hairs of the
eyebrows where they sweep down upon the nose
or very slightly below. It is always above the
inner corners of the eyes. It is usually at least a
centimeter below the glabella. Once found it is
well to mark this point.

Gnathion (gn): The gnathion is the lowest
point in the middle of the bony chin. Of course,
it is impossible to measure to the bony chin. But
enough pressure should be used to insure that one
is really measuring as closely as possible (with the
comfort of the subject in mind) to the bony chin.

Subnasale (sn): That point where the septum
of the nose joins the upper lip.

Zygion (zy): The zygion is the most laterally
projecting point on the zygomatic arches. It is
found only by measuring. It is the point on either
zygomatic arch where the maximum width of the
face occurs.

Frontotemporale (ft): Starting just above the
outer edge of the eyebrows are two temporal ridges
which continue upward and backward over the
forehead, diverging from each other in their course.
The point to be sought is located at the most in-
ward curving part of the temporal ridge.

Gonion (go): Situated at the angle formed by

MEASURING POINTS 29

the ascending branch and the body of the lower
jaw.

Alare (al): The alare is the most laterally
projecting point on the wings of the nose or
nostrils.

THE ESSENTIAL MEASUREMENTS

The most marked measurable differences in the
races of man are in stature, head form, face form,
and nose form. It is only when we have the meas-
urements necessary to define these peculiarities
that we can untangle their relationships.

1. Weight. Wherever possible the taking of
weight is desirable. Some form of balance scale is,
of course, preferable, but small portable spring
scales may be used if care is taken to check their
accuracy at frequent intervals. The subject
should be weighed without clothing, but if this is
not feasible a proper allowance should be made for
the weight of the clothes. This will differ accord-
ing to season and country.

2. Stature, with shoes removed, to the
nearest centimeter. The subject should stand
with heels together in the attitude of attention,
looking straight to the front. The most frequent
reaction encountered is for the subject to throw
the head too far back on the neck. When the
subject is markedly round shouldered or deformed
in such a way as to affect the normal stature, be
sure to indicate this by recording stature and then
drawing a line through the number so that it will
not be included in the average. When it is neces-
sary to chocse between omitting the measure or

30

MEASUREMENTS 31

taking it with the shoes on (in other words when
the subject refuses to remove shoes), take the
measure with shoes on and measure the height of
the heel with the sliding calipers. Deduct this at
once before recording stature.

3. Acromion Height. With the subject in the
same position assumed for the measurement of
stature, the arm of the anthropometer is lowered
until it touches acromion. Where the subcutane-
ous fat deposits are sufficient to interfere with
locating this point, it may be palpated by follow-
ing the spine of the scapula upwards and outwards.

4. Dactylion Height. The distance from the
floor to the tip of the middle finger. The arin and
hand should be held along the side fully extended.

5. Sitting Height. The subject should be
seated on a low table so that the thighs are raised
above the horizontal plane on which he is sitting.
As in taking stature, the head must be directed
front and the eyes looking straight ahead so that
the eye-ear plane is approximated. The trunk
should be held as erect as possible since consider-
able variation may result from slumping. The
distance measured is from the plane on which the
subject is sitting to vertex.

6. Suprasternale Height. This may be taken
while the subject is standing or sitting. If

32 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

the trunk height is the desired measurement the
latter position is better. In locating suprasternale
place the finger in the hollow at the base of the
neck making sure that you feel the upper border
of the sternum. Measure from the floor if standing
or the table if sitting.

7. Shoulder Width (Acromion to acromion).
Use the first section of the anthropometer. Make
sure the body is kept erect.

8. Chest Width. This measurement may be
taken at different levels: 1, the articulation of the
fourth rib with the sternum; 2, the nipple; or, 3,
the articulation of the seventh rib with the
sternum. Martin recommends the first level.
The rod of the anthropometer is held horizontal
and the arms are brought against the sides of the
ribs. The final reading should represent the aver-
age diameter between inspiration and expiration.

9. Chest Depth. At the same level as the
above and observing the same method.

10. Maximum Hip Width (lliocristale to
iliocrastale). The rod is held horizontally while
the arms of the anthropometer are pressed against
the greatest lateral extension of the iliac crest.

11. Head Length (Glabella to opisthocranium).
It is to be taken to the nearest millimeter with the
spreading calipers. This is the maximum length

MEASUREMENTS 33

of the head from the glabella to the most distant
point on the occiput in the median sagittal plane.
Stand on the left side of the subject, who should be
seated. Grasp one branch of the compass with the
thumb and finger of the left hand and the other
branch with the right hand. Have the hinge
pointed towards your own chest and the scale up
so you can read it at all times. Rest the middle
finger of the left hand on the nasal bridge in such a
manner that you can hold the tip of the left
branch of the caliper stationary or fixed against the
glabella. With the right hand move the right
branch of the caliper up and down in the median
sagittal line of the occiput until you obtain the
maximum measurement. Remove the ealipers and
then repeat. Repeat until you succeed in obtain-
ing uniform results. Do not use painful pressure,
but be sure to penetrate the hair. Usually the
weight of the hands furnishes enough pressure
without any conscious effort. Do not get too far
down on the neck. Be sure the right branch of the
caliper does not deviate from the midline of the
head.

12. Head Breadth (Euryon to euryon). This is
the maximum width of the head in a transverse
direction wherever it occurs. It is usually slightly
above and behind the tips of the ear. Stand

34 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

directly in front of the subject. Grasp one branch
of the caliper in each hand as before. Be sure that
the subject’s head is in a vertical position and that
the points of the calipers are in a true horizontal
plane. Place the points of the caliper on what
appears to be the maximum width of the head.
Read the scale and explore with the calipers all
the neighboring area until the maximum width has
been found. Do not get down too low. In general
it is safer to keep above the tips of the ears. In
any event do not go below the plane where the ear
joins the head.

13. Head Height. The head height may be
obtained directly with a head spanner or by
projection. In using the head spanner the tips
are placed in the ear holes so that they are within
the bony ring, but they must not be pushed in too
far lest they injure the ear. With the head in the
Frankfort, or eye-ear plane, the vertical height of
the head is taken, holding the instrument so that
the tips are up against the upper portion of the
bony part of the ear. With Hooton’s cephalometer
the tips are placed in tragion eliminating the
danger of injury to the ear. One may also measure
the head height directly with the upper section of
the anthropometer by adjusting the arms so that
one is at tragion and the other is at bregma. The

MEASUREMENTS 35

projective method is also used, but the personal
error is frequently very large. This method
consists in subtracting the distance from the floor
to tragion from the total stature.

14. Minimum Frontal Diameter (Fronto-
temporale to frontotemporale). The temporal
ridges are most marked on adult males. The
investigator should familiarize himself with the
character of these crests by observing them on
males with a well-marked development. This
diameter may be taken either with the sliding or
spreading calipers.

15. Face Breadth (Zygion to zygion). This is
the maximum width of the face and is to be
measured with the spreading calipers, as were the
length and breadth of head. Hold the calipers as
in measuring width of head. With the tips of the
index fingers find the most convex or outstanding
point on the zygomatic arches and apply the points
of the calipers. Read the scale. Remove the
calipers and repeat the process until you are sure
that you have obtained the maximum face width.
Only moderate pressure is to be used. Appear-
ances are deceiving and most beginners measure
too far forward. The maximum width is usually
back within two or three centimeters of the ear.
This varies in different racial types, so explore

36 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

thoroughly with the calipers before recording the
measurement.

16. Bigonial Diameter (Gonion to gonion).
Use the spreading calipers, holding the tips be-
tween the thumb and index finger, and place them
on the lateral border of the angles of the lower jaw.

17. Face Height, anatomical (Nasion to
gnathion). This is the distance from the nasion
to the gnathion or lower border of the chin. It is
best taken with the sliding compass. Gauge
approximately the height of the face and open the
scale a little more than the height of the face.
The subject should now be made to stand. With
the left thumb find the nasion. The nasion is the
point where the nasal bridge joins the forehead or
frontal bone. In skeletal material it is a suture.
Place the left thumb on the nasal bridge and with
considerable pressure follow up until it reaches the
point where the nasal bridge joins the forehead.
There is usually an angle here which can be felt.
When located, mark either with a wax pencil or
with the thumbnail held in place. See that the
subject has the mouth closed and the teeth in

occlusion. He will not unless you make a special

effort to see that he does. Then measure from the
nasion to the lowest point on the chin (gnathion).

MEASUREMENTS 37

Again use only moderate pressure, but be sure to
feel the bone of the chin.

18. Nasal Height (Nasion to subnasale). To
be measured with sliding calipers from the nasion,
as described above, to the point where the nasal
septum joins the upper lip. Be sure to touch the
septum but avoid pressure which distorts the
nose.

19. Nasal Width (Alare to alare). This is the
maximum width of the nose or nostrils. Measure
from the most outstanding point on one nostril to
that of the other. See that the subject is not
laughing or otherwise distorting the nasal width.
Avoid pressure. Do not compress the nose, but be
sure to touch the wings with the compasses.

All of these measures (except stature) are illus-
tratedin Figs. 4,5,and6. Practise reading the scale
of the calipers before measuring. The spreading
calipers are graduated in millimeters from 1 to
300. But only the centimeters or 10 millimeter
intervals are marked. Thus 1 means | centimeter
or 10 millimeters. To one who does not thor-
oughly understand the decimal scale, it is less
confusing to record in terms of centimeters as
marked on the scale. Head length, for example,
varies from 16.0 to 21.2 centimeters or 160 to
212 millimeters. The sliding calipers are usually

38 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

graduated from 1 to 20 centimeters or 1 to 200
millimeters. In some instances only every other
millimeter is marked or, in other words, each cen-
timeter is divided only into five parts instead of the
customary 10. In such cases estimate the nearest
millimeter. It is safest to measure first some ob-
ject to known length to insure that the calipers
are properly callibrated and that you are read-
ing the seale correctly. Millimeter cross-section
paper will serve to test one caliper against another.
Below is a list giving the normal range of some
measurements. If the results obtained are not
within these limits, it is very likely that there is
some misunderstanding of the technique involved.
Stature ranges in adult men from 110 to 220
centimeters. But unless one is measuring dwarfs
or giants the range is more often from about 130
to 200 centimeters.
Head length ranges from 150 to 210 mullimeters.
Head width ranges from 125 to 175 millimeters.
Face width ranges from 100 to 160 mallimeters.
Face height (anatomical) ranges from 90 to 150
millimeters.
Nose height ranges from 30 to 75 millimeters.
Nose width ranges from 23 to 55 millimeters.

DERIVED MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES

The projection method used in measuring the
body permits the derivation of the following meas-
urements :—

Head height by subtracting the projective height
of tragion from total stature.

Arm length by subtracting dactylion height
from acromion height.

Leg length by subtracting sitting height from
total stature.

From the head and face measurements given in
the text the following indices may be derived :—

1. The cephalic length-breadth index is derived
by dividing the width of the head by the length
of the head. In other words, it expresses the width
of the head in terms of percentage of the length of
the head. If a head is 150 millimeters wide and
200 millimeters long the cephalic length-breadth
index is 75.0 or the width of the head is 75 percent
of the length of the head.

Employing the numbers given the several
measurements on pp. 30-37, this index could be

£2 10:0
expressed as ~*7*°°

2. The cephalic length-height index:
3. The cephalic breadth-height index: 13X10
39

oe

40 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY
: . 15 00
4. The transverse cephalo-facial index: ~*~
5. The transverse fronto-parietal index: **;°*
6. The jugofrontal index (zygomatico-frontal) :
14100
—. eo
7. The jugomandibular index (zygomatico-
1 6x 100
gonial): —7s-—
° : 17XK100
8. The anatomical face index: ~*~:

19 ag. 100
9. The nasal index: —>—

Body proportions or are are expressed in re-
lation to stature, sitting height, or trunk height.
For example, the relative leg length is obtained by
dividing leg length times 100 by the total stature.
The number of such relationships which may be
obtained from the body measurements given in the
text is large, but some of the most important are
given here.

10. Relative sitting height:

11. Relative trunk height:
E- (2-5)X100
% 2

==

Sitting sst height 100
2

12. Relative leg lengt

13. Relative arm length: @-X*°*

14. Relative acromion breadth: **>""
15. Relative hip width: routes

. . 9 100
16. Thoracic index: *%2°°

MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES 41

Since stature is a composite measure many
authors prefer to use sitting height or trunk
height in calculating relationships. Trunk height
is particularly advised because it 1s comparable
to similar measurements on animals.

These indices need not worry one in the field,
for they can be more conveniently worked out in
the laboratory, since it is best to use a calculating
machine or some of the division tables to be found
in any scientific library. The most convenient
tables are those of Carl M. Furst “‘ Index-Tabellen
zum Anthropometrischen Gebrauch,” Jena, 1902,
which may be purchased through G. E. Stechert
and Company, New York City.

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS

In addition to the above measurable characters
the races of man differ widely from each other in
characters which are not readily measurable.
Examples of such traits are skin color, hair form,
eye color, ete. While it is impossible to measure
these and similar characteristics accurately an
effort is made to describe them as uniformly as
possible. To this end certain descriptive words
have come to have a fairly uniform and widely
accepted meaning in anthropology. Low waves,
deep waves, and curly, have a definite meaning in
anthropology, when applied to hair, which they
lack in popular usage. These conceptions are
described and illustrated below. The observer will
have less difficulty in this part of the work if he
appreciates at the start that these classes (such as
low waves, deep waves, ete.) are merely arbitrary
stages in a widely variable distribution. Just as
stature varies from 130 to 200 centimeters so does
hair vary from straight through all gradations to
the closely coiled spiral hair of some Negroes. In
the case of stature we have a rod for measuring it
accurately. 150 centimeters means the same the
world over. In the case of hair form, hair color,
eye color, skin color, and the other characters
mentioned below, we have no accurate measuring

42

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS 43

rod. So we must set up arbitrary standards of
color and form and describe the characteristics
as nearly as possible in terms of these standards
or conceptions.

The following observations are recommended :—

A. Skin Color. Skin color is best described
by use of some of the standards devised for the pur-
pose. Skin color is to be taken on an unexposed
and an exposed portion of the skin. The under
side of the upper arm, which is not usually exposed,
is a good place to record skin color unexposed to
light and wind. If this part has been exposed, the
chest will serve. The cheek is usually studied for
the effects of light and wind in pigment. Both are
important. If the Von Luschan scale is used,
record by number. Hold the scale against the
part of the skin being studied and find the closest
match. An absolute match will not be found in
many cases, but one sufficiently close to indicate
the degree of pigmentation will suffice. If a color
top 1s employed, hold the spinning top as near the
skin surface as possible, adjusting the disks until
an approximate match results. Then record by
letters and percentages the portions of each disk
exposed.

B. Hair Color. The choice of descriptive terms
gives black, dark brown, reddish brown, medium

44 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

brown, light brown, blond, golden, red. Red hair
should be further qualified as light, brick or
auburn. When one is studying Caucasians of
lighter tints it is very desirable to make up stand-
ards of real hair giving samples of the most out-
standing shades of the range. Whenever possible,
a small sample of the hair should be collected.
These can be used as a check upon the field ob-
servations.

C. Hair Form. Hair form is one of the most
important characters. In Figs. 7, 8, and 9 are
given photographic and line examples of the degrees
of curliness or waviness usually recognized.
Straight hair is easy to recognize, but in this day
and age even in the most out-of-the-way places one
must look for artificial waves. The natural hair
form is of course to be recorded. Following
straight hair three degrees of waviness are recog-
nized. While they are described in terms of depth
only as low, medium, or deep waves, the degree is
really determined by the depth in relation to the
width of the wave. The width of a wave is the
distance from the apex of one wave to the apex of
the next wave. The depth is the distance from a
line tangent to these two points to the greatest dip
between the two waves. When the depth is from
sth to Moth of the width the hair is described as

Fig. 7.

low waves

deep waves

Types of Hair Form.

45

See Fig. 8.

curly

woolly

Fig. 8. Types of Hair Form. See Fig. 7 and compare
with Fig. 9 for details. Note especially the difference
between curly and wavy hair and frizzly and woolly hair.
Wavy hair dips, but does not coil upon itself. Curly hair
curls upon itself and forms a complete circle or spiral.

46

Fig. 9. A Standard to aid in describing the Form
of the Hair. It isa modification of Martin’s (Lehrbuch
der Anthropologie). a=straight; b=low wave; c=
medium wave; d=deep wave; e and f=curly; g=friz-!
zly; h and i=woolly; j =coiled or spiral tufts.

47

48 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

low waved. When the depth fluctuates above or
below sth of the width, it is described as a medium
or moderate wave. When the depth fluctuates
above and below one-half of the width it is
described as deeply waved. The next class, curly,
is most often abused. Medium and deep waves
are often described as curly. Real curly hair is
rare. When long, curls are easily recognized of
course. We are all familiar with the artificial
curls of childhood. In races characterized by
curly hair the same long spiral curls from two to
three centimeters in diameter are found. But
when the hair is cut it is more difficult to recognize
curly hair. Tousled, or unkempt, wavy hair is
often described as curly. But curly hair does not
form waves. It is always tousled in appearance
when short. Each hair, even when cut quite short,
forms a more or less complete circle or a large
spiral. Before a hair can be called curly it should
form at least three-fourths or more of a circle.. On
the other hand it is not to be mistaken for the
matted woolly hair of Negroes. It is easily distin-
guished from this by the diameter of the curl or
spiral which fluctuates around 2 centimeters near
the head and dwindles gradually as the spiral
continues. Curly hair does not form such a close,
low mat, as does the woolly hair of Negroes.

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS 49
Frizzly hair is hair with a very short deep wave,
but it does not form a curl or a spiral. It is distin-
guished by the small dimensions of the wave.
A low wave is frequently about 5 centimeters wide
and about .5 centimeter deep; a medium wave is
about 3.5 or 4 centimeters wide and 6 or 7 milli-
meters deep; a deep wave is about 2.5 centimeters
wide and about 12 millimeters deep, but frizzly
hair has a wave only about 5 millimeters wide,
and about the same depth or slightly less. Woolly
hair is the familiar Negro hair consisting of more or
less closely coiled spirals linked together forming a
matted mass. In Bushmen and some other
Negroid types one frequently sees very closely
coiled hair grouped together in tufts which are
more or less isolated from each other. The scalp
is clearly visible between the tufts. Now, while
mention is made of these classes, it is to be clearly
understood that these forms do not exist as distinct
types. The measures given are only approximate
and arbitrary standards of judgment. In the field
one will encounter a complete gradation from the
stiff straight hair of the Mongol to the tufted or
spiral hair of the Bushmen. These artificial
standards are given as an aid to description.
Match the hair as nearly as possible with the
standards given. If itis impossible to say whether

50 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

it is low waved or medium waved, ete., mark it
intermediate between the two or in some way
indicate your doubt. It should be possible, how-
ever, to allocate a large proportion of the in-
dividuals encountered to one class or another.
Study these standards until they are firmly fixed
in the mind. Keep them constantly with you in
the field since one easily loses his perspective in a
new racial environment.

D. Eye Color. Eyes range in color from the
unpigmented albino to the very dark brown eyes
of the heavily pigmented Negro races. These
very dark brown eyes are often described as black.
Describe the eye color as nearly as possible with
the following terms: black, dark brown, medium
brown, light brown, gray, green, blue-brown,
gray-brown, dark blue, light blue. Gray is used
not for a very light blue, but for a very light-
brown eye. Such gray eyes are frequently
described as blue in Jews and Slavs. Green eyes
are also a very light brown. Blue-brown and gray-
brown are mixed eyes in which the brown pigment
is present in the iris as specks, patches, rings or
rays, often in definite patterns which should be
noted. The background of the iris is either blue or
gray in such instances. Eye color varies from time
to time in different states of health, temper,

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS dl

and age. In the aged of very heavily pigmented
races the eyes are frequently a light or medium
brown due to a thickening of the covering. If
working on Caucasians, it is best to make up a
standard series of glass eyes to aid in description.

E. The Epicanthic, or Mongoloid Fold. This
is a very Important character, but unless the
structure of this fold is thoroughly understood
it is impossible to note its presence or absence
accurately. In Fig. 10 the details of a European
and of a Japanese eye are given. The canthus is
the corner of the eye opening. There is an inner
canthus and an outer canthus. Occasionally in
Whites sometimes in Negroes, and very often in
the Mongoloid peoples a fold of skin covers the
inner canthus; hence, it is called an epicanthic
fold and because of its frequency in the Mongols
it is sometimes spoken of as a Mongoloid fold.
Further, it should be clearly understood that this
fold is not the upper lid overlapping the lower, but
a fold of skin arising three or four millimeters
above the free edge which bears the eyelashes.
In extreme cases this fold may sag down over the
upper lid and conceal it completely. Often when
it is attached far down on the nasal bridge it also
tends to draw up the skin below in such a way that
the lower lid is partly concealed. A careful study

Fig. 10. A Caucasoid Eye compared with a Japanese
Eye to show the Structure of the Epicanthiec or Mongoloid
Eyefold. 1=inner canthus; 2=outer canthus; 3=free
upper lid with lashes; 4=free lower lid with lashes; 5=
caruncula lacrimalis; 6 =the fold in the skin which in the
Japanese type below sweeps down and covers the inner
canthus (1) and the caruncula lachrimalis (5). This fold
(6) is the characteristic to be described. Note especially
that the free upper lid (3) plays no part in forming the
epicanthic fold but is often itself covered by the fold (6).

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS 53

of Fig. 10 will make clear just what the difference
is between eyes having this fold and eyes which do
not have it. In Fig. 11 are shown a series of eyes
which are often mistaken for eyes with the Mon-
goloid or epicanthie fold. Close observation will
show that this is not true. The caruncula lacri-
malis, the small pale red glandular body marked
5 in Fig. 10 is clearly observable. In eyes which
have a fold this caruncula is covered in part or
entirely by the fold. In Fig. 12 the degrees of
development of this fold are portrayed. Describe
as nearly as possible by the terms absent, slight
fold (or trace of fold), medium fold, and marked
fold. Use Fig. 12 as a standard.

This fold often makes eyes appear oblique or
slant. But all obliquely placed or slant eyes do not
have this fold. Each eye must be studied in
detail. It frequently happens that the fold
appears on one eye and not on the other. A very
high percentage of Mongols do not have this fold
even though their eye-slits may be narrow and
obliquely placed. It is found in Negroes and
Whites to some extent. Look for it in all races.

F, Thickness of Lips. Describe as thin,
medium, thick, and very thick. Fig. 13 gives the
standards.

Fig. 11. A Series of Eves which are often
mistaken for Eyes with the Epicanthie or Mon-
goloid Eyefold. Eyes may be obliquely placed
or may have very narrow eyeslits without having
the Mongoloid or epicanthic fold

54

DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS 55

G. Shovel-shaped Incisor Teeth. The upper
incisor (front) teeth of some Mongoloid and other
peoples have a depression or fossa on the inner
surface which is surrounded by a rim or ridge of
enamel. This looks not unlike a coal shovel and
has been described as shovel-shaped by Hrdlicka.
In the field it is best described in terms of rim
development. In Fig. 14 are given the standard
degrees of development in the central and lateral
incisors to aid in description. This type of fossa
may be distinguished in three degrees, slight,
medium, and marked, as indicated in lig. 14.
It is possible to observe this character by having
the subject open the mouth and hold the head back.
A dental mirror (which may be purchased at a
trifling cost from any dental supply house) helrs
in observing this character without contortinz
the subject.

H. Amount of Beard. ‘The development of
the beard is an important character in males. I[t
is usually described as absent, scant, medium, o
marked. By absent is meant that nothinz is
found but the soft downy hair common to women
and children, scant is used when the wel!-develored
hairs are decidedly scattering in distribution, and
could easily be counted. Heavy is applied to well-
developed dense beards such as occur in some of

_
>

unt petu

90v4)

Lg

‘poyoAorzyur ATPYSYS AT[eNsN st pl] JOMO] oy} oWer}X9 SI ppo} oryyUBoIds yy
usy A “ATJUSpuedepuT sin9d00 Uayjo AIOA YN ‘ploy oyy YIM puNo} ATyUoNbedy
SI Pl] JAMO] PspoAodd IO ,,UdT[OMS,, OY, “[BNPLATpUT oWeS ay} Jo soho OMY 944
Ul SOLIVA YUSUIdOTeAVpP JO 9oISEp oY} SEUMJOEWIOG “Yons sv 41 Sutps09ed 9I10Joq
9081} B SI oJoy} oNS 9G “plojoAT oryQuBoIdyY 10 prlojosuoy, 94} Jo yuoUT
-dojaasqd jo veidaq oy} SUIqIIosop Ul pesn oq 0} prepuURIg WP “ZT Sq

— See errr nnn ee =v aly neta

THIN

MEDIUM

=>
2a

VERY THICK

Fig. 13. Standard to aid in describing the Thickness
of the Lips.

E Fig. 14. Standard to aid in describing the Degree of
Development of the Rim and Fossa in the Upper Incisor
(front) Teeth. Describe the development of the rim as slight
(bottom row), medium (middle row) ,ormarked (upperrow).
The rims are on the inner (lingual) surface of the teeth
and result in a fossa or depression in this surface producing
a shovel-shaped incisor. (Scale arranged by Milo Hellman.)

59

60 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

the darker Caucasians and other peoples. Medium
is applied to the intermediate density. In record-
ing do not be deceived by length which depends on
shaving or trimming. Consider only the density
of distribution. The density varies in different
parts of the cheek and chin so its degree of develop-
ment should be recorded separately for the upper
cheek (from the hair to a point opposite the angle
of the lower jaw), the lower cheek (from the above
to a point below the corner of the mouth) and the
chin. Describe as absent, scant, medium, heavy.
Use the symbols, 0 for absent, 1 for scant, 2 for
medium, and 3 for marked, or abbreviations of
your own.

I. Body Hair. Describe as above: absent,
secant, medium, heavy. Observe the chest, fore-
arm, and leg separately. It is best to restrict this
to male subjects also. O=absent, 1=scant, 2=
medium, 3=heavy. See Fig. 15.

J. Physiology. In comparative racial studies
we suffer from a great paucity of data on
the physiology of primitive people. Those who
are specially equipped should, of course, take
observations on the metabolic rate and make
other physiological tests which may be practical
under field conditions. But it is a simple matter
for anyone to record the pulse rate, and with a

Fig. 15. Heavy but not Extreme Developments of
Body Hair are shown Above.

61

62 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

clinical thermometer, the body temperature.
Other information of a medical nature is desirable,
such as prevalence of certain diseases.

K. Vital Statistics. Of much interest are the
birth and death rates. The most satisfactory
method for obtaining such data is from genealogi-
cal tables. The investigator, wherever possible,
should record such tables including all the mem-
bers of the family, direct and collateral in descent.
Care should be taken to include the children who
died very young, since they are frequently omitted
in enumerating the members of a family.

L. Psychological Tests. We are not yet ina
position to recommend definite tests for primitive
people. Performance tests and tests of musical
ability may be successfully used. Improvements
in testing are so frequent that the safest procedure
is to consult a psychologist before entering the
field.

DEFORMATIONS

It is rare indeed to find a people who do not in
some way deform, manipulate, bleach, or dye some
part of the body. Always be on the lookout for
such customs as will interfere with obtaining
normal measures and descriptions. Obtain as
much detail as possible about the practice. Find
out what proportion of the population practise it
and if confined to one sex or one social class.
Elderly women will be found the best informants.
Especially be on the watch for:—

1. Practices of deforming the head by :—

a. Manipulation and massage when very
young

b. Binding the head

2. Unconscious deformation of the head due
to:—

a. Peculiarities of cradling (keeping child
constantly on back or side)

b. Use of hard cradleboards or hard
pillows

3. Bleaching, dyeing, or painting the skin

4. Bleaching or dyeing of the hair

5. Methods of producing artificial waves or
curls in the hair, or in the case of Negroes the use of
preparations which straighten the hair

6. The use of wigs, switches, etc., or hair

63

64 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

which is not wholly that of the subject. This is
not restricted to civilized peoples

7. Pulling out the hair of the beard and body

8. Manipulating the nose or nasal bridge in
an attempt to make it higher or lower

The Department of Anthropology of this Mu-
seum will welcome descriptions of such customs
even if no anthropometric data are contributed.

ASSISTANCE

Wherever possible a field worker should have an
assistant to record the measurements as taken.
Practise until the recorder is familiar with the
measurements. In planning your’ procedure
arrange the sequence of measurements so that the
least amount of change is necessary 1n the position
of the subject and the handling of instruments.
After this is determined always take them in the
same order. Have your recorder sit near-by so
that you can see that he or she puts down the
measure you give exactly as you give it and in the
correct space. Be very careful to speak the num-
ber clearly and distinctly. When it comes to
taking the descriptive observations take the
blanks in your own hands and with a good pencil
check or write the term that applies for each char-
acter. It can be done more rapidly in this way
and creates less excitement among the subjects
and makes the procedure much less embarrassing
for the individual being examined. This latter
point is an important one. Never embarrass the
subject any more than is absolutely necessary.
Continued success will follow only an impersonal,
kindly, and considerate attitude towards the
subjects examined.

( ii |

CLASSIFICATORY DATA

This consists of the name, sex, and age of the

| subject. For adults it is only necessary to obtain
the age in years. If it is not known get an approxi-
mate age and question it. If astudy of the growth
of children is contemplated age must be exact and
in as much detail as possible. Preferably get the
date of birth to year, month, and day. The place
where the study is made should follow and also
the date of the examination. Residence, place of
birth, tribe or race of subject, tribe or race of
mother and father should always be given. Occu-
pation and language or dialect are also useful in
working up the material. Such other data as may
be deemed necessary to make it clear to just what
race, tribe, or division of a race or tribe an in-
dividual belongs should be recorded. In order to
do this it is often desirable to add data on religion
or clan, ete. In recording place of birth be sure
to give town, as well as country, state, island, ete.
Race is used in a loose sense. Do not put down
white, brown, or black, ete., or even American,
Polynesian, or Malay. Give the most definite
term possible, such as Hawaiian, Samoan, Zuni,
or Yankton Sioux. Always record the data as
the subject gives them. If you doubt any of them,
such as for instance that the subject is a full-

66

AGE AND RACE 67
blooded Sioux, put a question mark after 1t and
make any applicable remark such as ‘looks part
White” or “neighbor says he is part Negro,”’ ete.,
ete. A majority of people tell the truth about
their parentage unless there are political or social
motives for concealing it.

\\

DESIRABLE SUBJECTS

A working series starts with 100 adults be-
tween the ages of twenty and sixty of each sex.
When possible the series should be increased to
two or three hundred of each sex. This is not so
large an order as it sounds. Once the technique
is mastered only a few minutes are necessary to
examine a subject. Of course, there are times and
places when it is impossible to get such series.
There are also times when it is wise or necessary
to omit the women. When it is impossible to get
more, fifty individuals are much better than none,
and even twenty-five adults of one sex will give
an approximation to the characteristics of the
people. In general, obtain as large a series as is
possible. It will usually be found necessary to
examine may persons whom one does not wish to
examine. It does not pay to offend anyone,
especially the very old. Measure them even
though you do not wish their records. Young
children may be omitted without offense.

Anthropology is badly in need of data on family
groups. If opportunity offers, measure complete
family groups from the youngest baby to the
grandparents or greatgrandparents. In such cases
make a rough family tree with the relationships
clearly indicated and the individual names or their

68

SUBJECTS 69
key numbers placed where they belong on the
chart. It is particularly desirable wherever
possible to measure complete tribes or com-
munities and to know the relationships of every
individual to every other individual.

Do not select the subjects from one class
entirely. If possible get a representative sample of
the population. Record the occupation of each
subject.

Your work will progress more smoothly if you
start with the chiefs and influential members of
the group and work down. It is best to give no
incorrect or mysterious explanation of the purpose
of the work. In most cases it will be sufficient to
state that you want to find out how big they are
or that you want to have a record of them so that
their children and grandchildren will know what
they were like. A dynamometer or some other
strength-testing device is a valuable asset in
entertaining the crowd until their turns come.

PHOTOGRAPHY

It is very desirable to supplement each record
with a full-face and profile photograph of the head
of the subject (see Figs. 5 and 6 for example).
Unless the subject is largely naked there is little
advantage in photographing the body. If the
trunk is bare, however, it is important to include
it or the upper portion of it in the photograph.

If possible get a camera with a good lens. Use
the 4 by 5 or 5 by 7 size for portraits. It is desir-
able to use the ground glass and focus for each
photograph. Take close-up photographs in which
the head uses about half of the plate. Have the
camera only four or five feet from the subject.
Have the lens on a level with the eyes. Focus
sharply on the eyes.

Whenever possible take photos on the shady
side of a building. Avoid as much as possible the
taking of pictures in the sunlight and under trees.
The shade of trees gives the picture a mottled,
blurred effect. Direct sunlight results in squinting
and other distortion of the features. On a cloudy
day get in the strongest light. Avoid covered
porches and over-hanging eaves. Whenever
possible take pictures between eight in the morn-
and five at night. Before and after this time,

70

PHOTOGRAPHY 71

time exposures are necessary, as of course they are
indoors and on very dark days.

A very good photograph may be taken on the
shady side of a building with both the subject and
the camera in the shade. The subject should be
not more than five or six feet from the lens at most.
Focus sharply on the eyes with the lens wide open.
Close the shutter and set it at about 8 or have it
closed only very slightly. Under these conditions
\, of asecond exposure gives a good picture in the
middle of a bright, clear day. Earlier in the morn-
ing and late in the afternoon it may be necessary
to expose 4 of a second. In countries where the
light is very fast it will be necessary to cut this
exposure or to close the shutter more. A few
experiments should always be made before doing
any photography on a large scale. Remember
that the close-up photographs of people are quite
different from distant scenery and require differ-
ent light conditions and times of exposure. It is
economical of time and money to consult the near-
est photographer about the light conditions.

For the purposes of anthropology there is little
advantage in carrying the heavy and fragile glass
plates into the field. The flat films and the film
packs are much more convenient and serve every

72 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY
purpose just as well. In most respects the flat
films are the equal of the glass plates.

Each photograph should be named or num-
bered so that it will be possible to identify it
with the record of measurements and observations.
In this respect flat films are more convenient than
film packs.

Photograph the subject full-face and in profile.
The profile should always be as nearly as possible
a true profile with the left side of the face toward
the camera. Try to have the photographs uniform
in the size of the subject. Figs. 5 and 6 may be
taken as an example of the types of photographs
desired.

Again the Department of Anthropology of this
Museum will be very grateful for photographs of
racial types and interesting mixtures. In the case
of mixture the photograph is much more valuable
if the photographs of the parents accompany it.
Family groups of mixed peoples are also very valu-
able. As much genealogical data as possible should
accompany each photograph.

SKELETAL COLLECTIONS

Skeletal material is badly needed to further our
knowledge of different races. Whenever possible
collect whole skeletons. At least make every effort
to get the long bones of the arms and legs. Also
when collecting the skull try to find the lower Jaw.
Make a special effort to get all of the teeth. If
they are loose wrap them in a paper and put them
inside the cranial cavity or put them in a small
envelope and give them a corresponding field
number. Always give all parts of one skeleton
the same field number. A wax pencil is good for
this or an indelible pencil will serve. Number all
of the large bones. Wrap the small bones in
packages or put in small bags and put a slip of
paper in with the number. When packing to ship
there will be less breakage if the skulls are packed
separately in another box. When possible each
skeleton should be photographed before it is
moved. As much data as possible on the condi-
tion, type of burial, archeological and ethnologi-
cal inclusions should be given. The Department
of Anthropology of this Museum will gladly ex-
amine and furnish reports on any skeletal remains
presented to it. It will also be glad to receive in-
formation as to where well-preserved skeletal re-
mains are accessible.

73

74 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

With a little practice one soon becomes adept
at making plaster casts of the face, hands, or other
parts of the body. These are very valuable for
museum exhibits and study purposes. This Mu-
seum will gladly furnish detailed instructions to
anyone who may have an opportunity for doing
such work.

Hair samples are also desirable. Whenever it is
possible collect large hair samples. Smaller
samples of about twenty hairs cut off close to the
head and put in an envelope are also useful. Num-
ber the same as field records and photographs.

STATISTICS

For the convenience of those who wish while
still in the field to reduce the accumulated mass of
measurements to some order we give here the
formule for deriving the mean, standard deviation,
and coefficient of variability. Our purpose is to
supply a helpful reminder to those already familiar
with statistical methods.

The first step is the seriation of the data into
classes. The class intervals used will depend on
the range in the measurements and the size of the
dimension. For most of the head and face meas-
urements intervals of one millimeter are recom-
mended, while for such large measurements as
stature, one centimeter. For ease in tabulation
the class intervals may be so chosen as to give
about twenty classes. In the following table a
sample series is given and the method by which
the constants are derived is displayed.

76 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Head Length
Class
Interval
mm. f* d* fd fd-
170 l —17 —17 289
171 0 —16 00 0
172 2 —15 —30 450
173 0 —14 0 )
174 2 —13 —26 338
175 0 —12 0 i)
176 l —1l1 —l1 121
177 0 —10 0 0
178 1 -—9 —9 81
179 0 —§ 0 0
180 2 —7 —7 49
181 2 —b6 —12 72
182 4 —B§ —20 100
183 2 —4 —8 es
184 5 —3 —15 45
185 2 —2 —4 8
186 6 —1 —t 6
—165
187 9 0) 0
188 3 +1 +3 7
189 3 +2 +6 12
190 4 +3 +12 36
191 2 +44 +8 32
192 6 +5 +30 150
193 6 +6 +36 216
194 4 +7 +28 196
195 2 +8 +16 128
196 fs +9 +18 162
197 2 +10 +20 200
198 0 +11 +0 0
199 1 +12 +12 144
200 2 +13 +26 338
rh) +215 3208 $

*f=frequency; d=deviation

STATISTICS rag
Number =75
Sum-+fd 215
Sum—fd 165
Sfd +8650
Sfd 50 9
Correction for Mean = =7 = Bo ha 6667** oc” =.4445
Trial Mean 187.00
Correction : oe 6467
Mean 187.6667
Sum fd? =3208

Standard Deviation =

/Sum fd2-c2

N
/32U8— 4445
as
= V 42..7733—. 4445
= 1/42. 3288
=6§.51**

: Hn «nies SOD = 6.51 x100_.
Coefficient of Variability =M 187.67 =3.49
: es ee, 651 £0
Error of -. Se epealae aa s 6745, 66 = 866 = 51
7 o Goal 439 C..
Error of o Dickie: ON = 674555 95 = 12. 95 = 36

/ Ae EY aaa) 234
Error of V. Hk, n — 674575 95 = {9.95 = =.19
Mean =187.67= .51
os = 6.51+ .36
ee 3.492.179

**If the class interval is more or less than the unit of measurement
a = is made by multiplying by the number of units in the class
interva

RECORD BLANKS AND PUBLICATION

Use some such record blank as the one sug-
gested below. If only a few are to be used it will
be found cheaper to mimeograph them.

When publishing give individual records as
well as averages. This makes your work avail-
able to all workers for all time. The Division of
Anthropology in this Museum will be glad to
receive field records submitted for analysis and
publication. If the records are accepted and
published, due credit will be given the collector for
his share in the enterprise.

SUGGESTED ANTHROPOMETRIC
RECORD BLANK

Observer: Date
Classificatory Data
Name of subject: Sex:
Residence: Age:
Place of birth: Occupation:
Race or tribe of father: Language:
Race or tribe of mother: Religion:
Race of subject: Photo No.:
Other details of race, relationship, etc.
Measurements
1. Weight 11. Head length
2. Stature 12. Head breadth
3. Acromion height 13. Head height
4. Dactylion height 14. Minimum frontal
5. Sitting height diameter
6. Suprasternale height 15. Face breadth
7. Shoulder width 16. Bigonial diameter
8. Chest width 17. Face height
9. Chest depth 18. Nasal height
10. Maximum hip width 19. Nasal width

Head deformed?
Indices

Cephalic length-breadth index
Cephalic length-height index
Cephalic breadth-height index
Transverse cephalo-facial index
Transverse fronto-parietal index
Jugofrontal (zygomatico-frontal) index
Jugomandibular (zygomatico-gonial) index
Anatomical face index
Nasal index
10. Relative sitting height
11. Relative trunk length
12. Relative leg length
13. Relative arm length
i4. Relative acromion breadth
15. Relative hip width
16. Thoracic index

Notr.—The numerals used in the above correspond to
those.in the text and refer to the same measures and indices,

OS NS Vie sere

79

SUGGESTED ANTHROPOMETRIC
RECORD BLANK

Observations
i (Continued)

A. Skin color: inner side of arm.... cheek....

B. Haircolor: black, dark brown, medium brown, reddish
brown, light brown, blond, golden, light red, brick
red, auburn (is it bleached or dyed?)

C. Hair form: straight, low waves, medium waves, deep
waves, curly, frizzly, woolly, tufts (is the form
natural?)

D. Eye color: black, d. brown, med. brown, It. brown,
gray, green, blue-brown, gray-brown, dark blue,
light blue

Ki. Epicanthic or Mongoloid fold: absent, slight, medium ,
marked

F. Thickness of lips: thin, medium, thick, very thick

G. Shovel-shaped incisor teeth: laterals: rim absent
slight, medium, marked; centrals or mesials: rim
absent, slight, medium, marked

H. Amount of beard: upper cheek, 0, 1, 2, 3; lower
cheek, 0, 1, 2, 3; chin, 0, 1, 2,3

I. Amount of body hair: chest, 0, 1, 2,3; forearm, 0, 1
2, 3; Jegs; 0) 1,23

J. Pulse rate; temperature.

Norr.—The letters correspond to those used in the text
and refer to the same characters.

80

BIBLIOGRAPHY

While it is believed that a careful study of this
outline will enable anyone to make observations
and measurements of great value to science, it is
of course understood that it is merely a primer and
that anyone who hopes to do serious work in
physical anthropology will go to some museum or
university to be properly trained. In any case the
field-worker should consult the standard text-
books of anatomy and physical anthropology, a
few of which are enumerated below. Additional
titles will be found in the bibliographies accom-
panying these works.

METHOD

FrasseTtTo, Fapio. Lezioni di Antropologia. 3 vols.
Milano, 1918.

Hrouicka, A. Anthropometry. Philadelphia, 1920.

Martin, Rupotr. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in
Systematischer Darstellung mit Besond-
erer Beriicksichtigung der Anthropolo-
gischen Methoden. Jena, 1914.

(Indispensable to anyone attempting serious

work in anthropology. Illustrations and
comparative material are especially
valuable. )

Wivper, Harris H. A Laboratory Manual of Anthropo-
metry. Philadelphia, 1920.

81

82 ESSENTIALS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY
CUNNINGHAM, D. J. Textbook of Anatomy. New York,
1917.
DuckwortnH, W. H. L. Morphology and Anthropology.
A Handbook for Students. Second
Edition. Cambridge, England, 1915.
KEIBAL, FRANZ, AND Matt, F. P. (Editors). Manual of
Human Embryology. London, 1910.
Keira, ArtHUR. Human Embryology and Morphology.
London, 1913.

GENERAL BACKGROUND IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND ALLIED
SUBJECTS

Boas, Franz. The Mind of Primitive Man. New York,

1911.
Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of

Immigrants (The Immigration Commis-
sion, Senate Document No. 208, Wash-
ington, 1910).

Deniker, J. The Races of Man; an Outline of Anthro-
pology and Ethnography. London,
1904.

_Drxon, Rotanp B. The Racial History of Man. New
York, 1923.

GUIFFRIDA-RUGGERI, V. L’Uomo Attuale. Milano, 1913.
Homo Sapiens. Vienna, 1913.

GreGcory, WILLIAM K. Studies on the Evolution of the
Primates (Bulletin, American Museum of
Natural History, vol. 35, art. 19, 1916).

Keane, A. H. Man, Past and Present. Cambridge, 1920.

Keitu, ArtHur. The Antiquity of Man. 2 vols. London,

1925.

Luu, R.S. Organic Evolution. A Textbook. New York,
1917.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 83

Osporn, Henry Fatrrietp. Men of the Old Stone Age.
Their Environment, Life and = Art.
New York, 1915.

Pirrarp, E. Race and History. An Ethnological Intro-
duction to History. New York, 1926.

Riptey, W. Z. The Races of Europe. A Sociological
Study. New York, 1899.

Wisster, CLarK. The American Indian. An Introduction
to the Anthropology of the New World.
Second Edition. New York, 1922.

STATISTICAL METHODS

Bartow’s Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube
Roots, Reciprocals. London, 1917.

Davenport, C. B. Statistical Methods, with especial
Reference to Biological Variation. New
York, 1904.

ILperTON, E. M. anp W. P. Primer of Statistics. London,
1914.

Kine, W. I. The Elements of Statistical Methods. New
York, 1916.

Yuue, G. Upnrey. An Introduction to the Theory of
Statistics. London, 1911.

PERIODICALS

American Journal of Physical Anthropology.

Anthropolozischer Anzeiger.

Zeitschrift far Morphologie und Anthropologie.

Archiy fiir Anthropologie.

Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland.

L’ Anthropologie.

Archivio per l’Anthropologia e la Etnologia.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS

The following may be secured from the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History in New York City
If ordered by mail, add ten cents to list price for
postage.

North American Indians of the Plains. By
Clark Wissler. Third Edition, 164 pages, maps and
illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents.

Indians of the Southwest. By Pliny Earle
Goddard. Third Edition, 195 pages, maps and
illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents.

Indians of the Northwest Coast. By Pliny
Earle Goddard. 176 pages, map and illustrations.
Cloth, 75 cents.

Old Civilizations of Inca Land. By Charles
W. Mead. 117 pages, map and illustrations.
Cloth, 75 cents.

Ancient Civilizations of Mexico and Central
America. By Herbert J. Spinden, Third Edition,
260 pages, map and illustrations. Cloth, $1.00.

Peoples of the Philippines. By A. L. Kroeber.
Second Edition, 233 pages, maps and illustrations.
Cloth, $1.00.

S4

ANTHROPOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS 85

Essentials of Anthropometry. By L. R.
Sullivan. Revised Edition, by H. L. Shapiro. 83
pages and illustrations. Cloth, £1.00.

Peoples of Asiatic Russia. By Waldemar
Jochelson. In press. Paper, $2.50.

-_ i ee » se
tee 2 ei
T= 8 ra ee =
yee ¥ POU PAE
« 7

‘
tad

_

Tn